Public access to court records in the United States starts from a simple default: unless a judge has sealed something, you can read it. Federal filings live in a nationwide electronic system called PACER. State and county filings live with the clerk of court where the case was filed. Courtrooms themselves are open to anyone who walks in. The practical questions are which court has your case, how to search its system, what it will cost, and what pieces of the file have been redacted or sealed before you ever see them.
The right of access rests on two foundations the Supreme Court has recognized: a First Amendment right to attend criminal trials, and a separate common law right to inspect judicial records that doesn’t require you to show any personal stake in the case.1Legal Information Institute. Nixon v. Warner Communications, Inc. You don’t have to explain why you want a record. You just have to find it.
What You Can Actually Get
The presumption of openness covers most of what a case generates. Dockets list every action chronologically: motions filed, orders issued, hearing dates. They are the fastest way to see where a case stands. The core documents are public too: complaints that start civil lawsuits, indictments in criminal cases, written motions and their supporting briefs, and evidence formally admitted at trial.
Final judgments and court orders are routinely available, including civil awards and criminal sentencing information. The same applies on appeal: you can read the briefs each side filed and the written opinion that explains the court’s reasoning. Appellate opinions become part of the permanent legal record because they interpret the law for later cases.
Most federal appeals courts also release oral argument audio at no charge. Several circuits post recordings the same day arguments take place, and some stream them live.2United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. Listen to Oral Arguments The Supreme Court releases audio as well, though it does not permit cameras.
Finding the Right Court
Before you search for anything, figure out which system has the case. Federal district courts handle disputes involving federal statutes, constitutional questions, and lawsuits between residents of different states where more than $75,000 is at stake.3Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 1332 – Diversity of Citizenship; Amount in Controversy; Costs State courts handle most of everything else: family law, probate, personal injury, contract disputes, and the vast majority of criminal prosecutions.
Then narrow it down. Federal cases are filed in the district where the events occurred or where the defendant resides. State cases land in the county court where the dispute arose. Records are kept locally, so sending a request to the wrong courthouse means starting over.
Search is fastest with a case number, sometimes called a docket number. These usually include codes for the filing year and the type of case: “CV” for civil, “CR” for criminal. If you don’t have one, you can search by the full legal names of the parties, and knowing the approximate date range helps in courts that handle thousands of filings a year.
Multidistrict litigation is a special case. Hundreds or thousands of related suits are consolidated before a single judge, and records come through PACER like any other federal case, but you may need the MDL case number rather than any one plaintiff’s.4Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation. MDL Case Info
Federal Records Through PACER
PACER, which stands for Public Access to Court Electronic Records, is the electronic gateway to filings in every federal district, bankruptcy, and appellate court.5PACER. What is PACER? Create an account at pacer.uscourts.gov. Most members of the public want a “Case Search Only” account. You’ll be asked for identifying information including your date of birth, which is permanent to the account.6PACER. Register for an Account
Pricing is per page: $0.10, capped at the equivalent of 30 pages ($3.00) per document. If your charges for a quarter stay at $30 or below, you owe nothing.7United States Courts. Electronic Public Access Fee Schedule That covers a fair amount of casual research. Most federal courthouses also have public computer terminals where PACER viewing is free, though printing usually costs extra.
If You Can’t Afford the Fees
You can ask the court whose records you need for an exemption directly. Each court decides individually, considering whether the exemption is “necessary to avoid unreasonable burdens and to promote public access to information.” There’s no standardized form and no guaranteed outcome.8PACER. Options to Access Records if You Cannot Afford PACER Fees
Academic researchers have a separate path. The Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts offers a Multi-Court Exemption for researchers affiliated with educational institutions on a defined, limited-scope project that won’t be posted online or redistributed commercially. The Administrative Office reviews the application and makes a recommendation; each court then issues its own order granting or denying it.9PACER. Instructions for the Application for Multi-Court Exemption
The Free Workaround
RECAP, a browser extension maintained by the Free Law Project, lets you sidestep some PACER costs. When anyone running the extension buys a document from PACER, the file is automatically added to a free public archive on CourtListener. If someone else has already pulled the document you need, you can read it for free. The archive runs into the tens of millions of documents and is fully searchable. It is not a complete mirror of PACER, but for high-profile or heavily researched cases, the odds are good that what you want is already there.
State Court Records
State courts run their own systems, and the experience varies enormously. Many states now offer some online access, from basic docket searches to full document viewing. Some systems are free; others charge subscription or per-search fees.
If no online portal exists for the court you need, you’ll go through the clerk of court in the county where the case was filed. Many clerks accept written requests by mail. Expect a records request form asking for the case number or party names, the specific documents you want, and your contact information. Certified copies, often needed when you’re proving a case disposition for an official purpose, cost more than plain copies, though fees are usually modest per document.
Old or archived files may sit in off-site storage, and retrieval can take days or weeks. The case number and filing year speed things up considerably.
Ordering a Transcript
Dockets and filings don’t contain what was said out loud in court. For that you need a transcript, which you order from the court reporter. In federal court, start with Form AO 435, with a separate form for each case number.10Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts. Transcript Order (AO 435)
Cost depends on how fast you need it. The Judicial Conference sets maximum per-page rates:11United States Courts. Federal Court Reporting Program
- 30-day (ordinary): $4.40 per page
- 14-day: $5.10 per page
- 7-day (expedited): $5.85 per page
- Next-day (daily): $7.30 per page
- Realtime: $3.70 per page for a single feed, dropping to $1.80 per page for five or more feeds
Those are ceilings, and the actual charge may be lower. After you submit the form, the court tells you the required deposit. The clock on delivery starts only when payment is received. If the deposit doesn’t cover the full cost, you’re billed for the balance before the finished transcript ships. Trial transcripts can run hundreds of pages, so even ordinary pricing adds up. First copies to other parties in the case cost $1.10 per page.11United States Courts. Federal Court Reporting Program
Sitting in the Courtroom
Walking in remains the most direct way to see the system work. Courts post daily calendars on their websites or at the courthouse entrance showing which cases are being heard, in which courtroom, and when. No appointment is needed for proceedings that are open to the public, which is the default for nearly all trials and hearings.
Every courthouse screens visitors at a security checkpoint, similar to airport screening. Cameras, recording devices, and certain electronics are prohibited in most federal courtrooms. The Supreme Court bars photography inside the courtroom at any time and advises against bringing infants or young children given the length and formality of sessions.12Supreme Court of the United States. Frequently Asked Questions – Visiting the Court
Inside, stay quiet, don’t approach the bench or jury, follow instructions from the bailiff, and avoid anything that could disrupt the proceedings. Dress codes vary, but courtrooms are formal; skip sunglasses, hats, and clothing with messages or logos. Judges have broad discretion to remove anyone whose behavior interferes with the proceedings, and willful disruption can trigger contempt sanctions.
Cameras and Remote Access
Being allowed to watch isn’t the same as being allowed to record. Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 53 flatly prohibits photographing or broadcasting criminal proceedings from the courtroom.13Legal Information Institute. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure Rule 53 – Courtroom Photographing and Broadcasting Prohibited This is why major federal trials still produce sketch artists instead of video clips. The Supreme Court has never permitted cameras in its courtroom.
Civil cases have a little more room. A handful of federal courts allow cameras in civil proceedings after pilot programs run between 1991 and 2015, and currently only a few circuit and district courts permit it under limited circumstances.14Congress.gov. Video Broadcasting from the Federal Courts – Issues for Congress State courts vary; many allow cameras in civil and even criminal proceedings, with judges retaining discretion to prohibit recording in individual cases.
Remote public access to federal proceedings has grown since 2020. After a pilot program that ran through 2023, the Judicial Conference now allows live audio of certain civil and bankruptcy proceedings that don’t involve witness testimony, at the judge’s discretion. Each circuit court of appeals decides separately whether to broadcast its own arguments. Criminal proceedings remain largely closed to remote access under Rule 53.15United States Courts. Remote Public Access to Proceedings
What You Won’t See: Redactions and Sealed Records
Some things never make the public file. Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 5.2 and Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 49.1 require filers to strip sensitive personal details before documents go in. Social Security and taxpayer ID numbers are trimmed to the last four digits. Birth dates show only the year. Financial account numbers are limited to the last four digits. Minors are identified by initials. The criminal rule also reduces home addresses to city and state.16Legal Information Institute. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Rule 5.2 – Privacy Protection for Filings Made with the Court17GovInfo. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure Rule 49.1 – Privacy Protection for Filings Made with the Court The clerk’s office does not screen filings, so the responsibility sits with whoever files.
There are a few carve-outs. In forfeiture cases, the financial account number identifying the property at stake appears in full. In Social Security benefit appeals and immigration cases, remote electronic access is restricted: parties and their attorneys can view the full file remotely, while others must come to the courthouse for anything beyond the docket and opinions.16Legal Information Institute. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Rule 5.2 – Privacy Protection for Filings Made with the Court
Sealing goes further than redaction. When a court seals a document or an entire case, the public cannot view it at all. Judges grant sealing when disclosure would cause serious harm no lesser measure can prevent: protecting the identity of a confidential informant, shielding trade secrets, safeguarding detailed medical information, or preventing exposure that could endanger someone’s safety. The party asking to seal generally has to show a specific, compelling interest, explain why redaction wouldn’t suffice, and propose the narrowest possible restriction. Sealing an entire case file is rare; sealing individual documents inside an otherwise open file is more common. Even then, the docket usually shows that a sealed filing exists, so you can see the court acted on something even when the substance is hidden. Records involving juveniles are almost universally restricted, regardless of the type of case.