A criminal case in the United States moves through a recognizable sequence, and the stages of the criminal justice process run in roughly this order: investigation, arrest and booking, charging, initial court appearance and bail, arraignment and pre-trial proceedings, trial, sentencing, and appeal. State procedures vary in the details, but the backbone is the same across jurisdictions. Here is what happens at each step, in the order a defendant actually experiences it.
Investigation
Every case starts with someone believing a crime occurred. Police gather evidence, interview witnesses, review surveillance footage, and identify suspects. Some investigations wrap up in hours. Complex fraud or conspiracy cases can take years. During this phase, officers may apply for search warrants, run forensic tests, or work with informants to build something strong enough to support an arrest.
The government does not have unlimited time. Under federal law, prosecutors generally must file charges for non-capital offenses within five years of the crime.1Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 18 U.S. Code 3282 – Offenses Not Capital State deadlines vary by crime and can be shorter or longer. Serious offenses like murder typically have no time limit at all. Once the applicable window closes, the case is dead regardless of how strong the evidence is.
Arrest and Booking
An arrest requires probable cause: enough facts and circumstances that a reasonable person would believe a crime occurred and that this particular person committed it.2LII / Legal Information Institute. Probable Cause That standard sits well above a hunch but below the proof needed for conviction. An arrest can happen with a warrant signed by a judge or without one, as long as probable cause exists at the time.
Before any custodial questioning, officers must give the Miranda warnings: the right to remain silent, the right to an attorney during questioning, and the right to have an attorney appointed if the suspect cannot afford one.3Cornell Law School. Miranda Warning If police skip the warnings and interrogate anyway, statements obtained during that interrogation can be thrown out.
After arrest, the suspect goes through booking at a station or jail. Officers record personal information, take fingerprints and photographs, inventory belongings, and check databases for outstanding warrants.4LII / Legal Information Institute. Booking The booking record becomes part of the file that follows the case through every later stage.
Charging Decisions
Once the arrest is done, the case shifts from police to prosecutors. A prosecutor reviews the evidence and decides whether to file formal charges, what those charges should be, or whether to decline the case entirely.5United States Department of Justice. Charging Prosecutorial discretion is broad. Weak evidence, witness problems, or policy priorities can all lead to a decision not to prosecute even when the arrest itself was legally valid.
The charges filed determine whether the case is treated as a misdemeanor or a felony, a distinction that shapes everything that follows. As a general rule, a misdemeanor carries a potential jail sentence of less than one year, while a felony carries a year or more in state or federal prison. Felony charges trigger additional protections, including the right to a grand jury indictment in federal cases and the constitutional right to a jury trial. For misdemeanors carrying six months or less, there may be no right to a jury trial at all.6LII / Legal Information Institute. Petty Offense Doctrine and Maximum Sentences Over Six Months
Grand Jury or Preliminary Hearing
Before a felony case can go to trial, most jurisdictions require an independent check that the charges have enough support. This happens through either a grand jury or a preliminary hearing. A preliminary hearing is open: the prosecution presents enough evidence to show probable cause before a judge, and the defense can cross-examine. A grand jury meets in secret. Only the prosecutor presents evidence to a panel of citizens, who vote on whether to indict. The defendant typically has no right to appear or present a defense at a grand jury, which is one reason prosecutors tend to prefer them.
Initial Court Appearance and Bail
After arrest, the defendant must be brought before a judge without unnecessary delay.7Cornell Law Institute. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure Rule 5 – Initial Appearance In practice, this first appearance usually happens within 24 to 48 hours. The judge explains the charges, advises the defendant of their constitutional rights, and addresses legal representation.
The Sixth Amendment guarantees the right to an attorney in criminal prosecutions. Since the Supreme Court’s 1963 decision in Gideon v. Wainwright, that right extends to state prosecutions as well, and the court must appoint a lawyer for any defendant who cannot afford one.8LII / Legal Information Institute. Right to Counsel This is where most defendants who need a public defender are assigned one.
The judge also decides whether to release the defendant before trial or hold them in custody. Under the federal Bail Reform Act, the judge weighs the nature of the offense, the weight of the evidence, the defendant’s personal history and community ties, and the danger release would pose to others.9Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 18 USC 3142 – Release or Detention of a Defendant Pending Trial Release options range from being let go on a promise to return (release on recognizance) to posting a cash bond or using a bail bond company. Bail bond companies typically charge a nonrefundable fee of 10 to 20 percent of the bail amount and guarantee the full amount to the court if the defendant disappears. For serious flight risks or defendants considered dangerous, pretrial detention without bail is possible.
Arraignment and Pre-Trial Proceedings
At the arraignment, the defendant formally enters a plea: guilty, not guilty, or no contest. Most plead not guilty at this stage even if they expect to negotiate a deal later, because a not-guilty plea preserves every option. A guilty or no-contest plea entered at arraignment is much harder to undo.10United States Department of Justice. Initial Hearing / Arraignment
Before accepting any guilty plea, the judge must personally confirm the plea is voluntary, that the defendant understands the rights being waived (including the right to a jury trial and the right against self-incrimination), and that the defendant understands the potential consequences.11LII / Legal Information Institute. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure Rule 11 – Pleas A guilty plea waives nearly every trial right the Constitution provides, which is why this colloquy exists.
Discovery
Once a not-guilty plea is entered, both sides begin exchanging evidence. The prosecution must turn over materials it plans to use at trial, including witness statements and police reports.12United States Department of Justice. Discovery Prosecutors also have a continuing obligation to hand over exculpatory evidence, meaning anything that could help the defense or undermine the prosecution. The Supreme Court established this requirement in Brady v. Maryland, and failure to comply can bring sanctions, a new trial, or a reversed conviction.13Justia U.S. Supreme Court. Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83 (1963)
Pre-Trial Motions
Either side can ask the judge for rulings that shape what happens in the courtroom. A motion to suppress asks the judge to exclude evidence obtained in violation of the defendant’s rights, such as evidence from a search without probable cause. A motion to dismiss argues the charges should be dropped outright, perhaps because the evidence is insufficient or the statute of limitations has expired.14United States Department of Justice. Pre-Trial Motions A successful suppression motion can gut the prosecution’s evidence and make a trial pointless.
Speedy Trial Protections
The Sixth Amendment guarantees the right to a speedy trial, and federal law puts numbers on that guarantee. Under the Speedy Trial Act, prosecutors must file charges within 30 days of arrest and bring the case to trial within 70 days of filing or the defendant’s first court appearance, whichever is later.15Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 18 U.S. Code 3161 – Time Limits and Exclusions Certain delays are excluded from the clock, including time spent on pre-trial motions, mental competency evaluations, and continuances the defendant agrees to. State rules vary but follow the same basic principle.
Plea Bargaining
Roughly nine out of ten criminal cases never reach a jury. They are resolved through plea bargaining, where the defendant pleads guilty, often to a reduced charge or in exchange for a lighter sentencing recommendation, and both sides avoid the time, expense, and uncertainty of trial.14United States Department of Justice. Pre-Trial Motions Negotiations can happen at almost any point after charges are filed, but they are most intense during the pre-trial period when both sides have seen the evidence through discovery. A plea deal is not final until the judge reviews and accepts it.
Trial
If no plea deal is reached, the case goes to trial. Most people picture a jury trial, but a defendant can also choose a bench trial, where a judge alone hears the evidence and decides the outcome. A bench trial requires the defendant to waive the jury right in writing, and in federal cases the prosecutor and the judge must agree.
Jury Selection
A jury trial begins with voir dire, where the judge and attorneys question potential jurors to identify bias or conflicts.16LII / Legal Information Institute. Voir Dire Each side can strike jurors “for cause” (a demonstrated reason the person cannot be fair) or use a limited number of peremptory challenges to remove jurors without stating a reason.
Presentation of Evidence
The prosecution goes first, presenting witnesses and physical evidence to try to prove every element of the charged crime beyond a reasonable doubt. The defense can cross-examine each prosecution witness. After the prosecution rests, the defense may present its own witnesses and evidence, though it is not required to. The burden of proof never shifts away from the government. Both sides finish with closing arguments.
Verdict, Hung Jury, and Acquittal
A criminal verdict must be unanimous. Every juror must agree on guilty to convict, and every juror must agree on not guilty to acquit.17LII / Legal Information Institute. Unanimity of the Jury When the jury cannot reach agreement, it is a hung jury, and the judge declares a mistrial.18LII / Legal Information Institute. Hung Jury A mistrial from a hung jury does not count as an acquittal and double jeopardy protections do not apply, so the prosecution can retry the case or drop the charges.
An acquittal is final. The Fifth Amendment’s Double Jeopardy Clause prevents the government from trying someone again for the same offense after a not-guilty verdict. One major exception: the separate sovereigns doctrine allows both a state government and the federal government to prosecute the same conduct, because each is considered a different sovereign with its own laws.19LII / Legal Information Institute. Separate Sovereigns Doctrine The Supreme Court reaffirmed this in 2019 in Gamble v. United States.
Sentencing
After a guilty verdict or guilty plea, the judge imposes a sentence. Federal law requires the sentence to be “sufficient, but not greater than necessary” to achieve its purposes, and the judge must weigh the nature of the offense, the defendant’s background and criminal history, the need for deterrence and public safety, and the sentencing guidelines issued by the U.S. Sentencing Commission.20Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 18 U.S. Code 3553 – Imposition of a Sentence The judge must also consider restitution to victims and the need to avoid unwarranted disparities between defendants convicted of similar conduct.
Sentences come in several forms, often combined:
- Incarceration: time in jail (typically misdemeanors or short sentences) or state or federal prison (for felonies).
- Probation: community supervision instead of prison time, with conditions like regular check-ins, drug testing, or travel restrictions.21United States District Court District of South Dakota. What Is the Difference Between Probation, Parole, and Supervised Release
- Fines: money paid to the government as punishment.
- Restitution: money paid directly to victims to cover losses like medical bills, lost wages, or property damage, distinct from a fine because it compensates the person harmed rather than the state.22LII / Legal Information Institute. Restitution
- Community service: unpaid work for a nonprofit or public agency, sometimes imposed alongside other penalties.
For defendants sentenced to prison, parole or supervised release may follow. Parole is early release from prison under community supervision; probation replaces prison entirely.21United States District Court District of South Dakota. What Is the Difference Between Probation, Parole, and Supervised Release Violating the conditions of either can send a person back behind bars.
Appeals
A conviction is not necessarily the end. A defendant who believes legal errors occurred during the trial can appeal to a higher court. An appeal is not a second trial. No new witnesses testify and no new evidence comes in. The appellate court reviews the trial record for specific mistakes, such as an incorrect ruling on a motion to suppress or an improperly calculated sentence.23United States Department of Justice. Appeal
The timeline is tight. In federal criminal cases, a defendant must file a notice of appeal within 14 days of the judgment. That deadline can be extended to 30 days in limited circumstances, but missing it usually means forfeiting the right to appeal entirely.24United States Department of Justice. Time to Appeal or Petition for Review or Certiorari State deadlines vary but are similarly strict.
If the appellate court finds a significant error, it can reverse the conviction outright, modify the sentence, or send the case back for a new proceeding. Many appeals are unsuccessful. Appellate courts give substantial deference to trial judges and juries on factual determinations and review most issues only for clear legal error.
Clearing the Record After the Case Ends
Even after a case is fully resolved, the criminal record it creates can follow a person for years, affecting employment, housing, and professional licensing. Most states offer some path to clearing or limiting access to that record, though eligibility rules differ widely. Expungement, where available, destroys the record as though the case never happened. Sealing hides the record from public view but keeps it accessible to law enforcement and certain government agencies with a court order. Some states use the two terms interchangeably, so the practical effect depends on local law. Filing fees for these petitions range from nothing to several hundred dollars depending on the jurisdiction.