The lowest courts in the federal system are the 94 U.S. District Courts, the trial courts where federal cases begin. Witnesses testify there, evidence is examined there, and a judge or jury decides the outcome. Above them sit the 13 circuit courts of appeals, and above those, the U.S. Supreme Court. A handful of specialized federal trial courts handle narrower categories of disputes, but for most federal matters, the district court is the first and often the most important stop.
What a U.S. District Court Does
Every federal crime, every constitutional claim, and every qualifying lawsuit between citizens of different states starts in a district court. Congress has created 94 of them. Every state has at least one; the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands each have their own. Larger states are divided into multiple districts, and California, New York, and Texas each have four.1United States Courts. About U.S. District Courts
These are the courts that build the factual record. Testimony, documents, physical evidence — all of it is developed at this level, and the later stages of federal review depend on what happens here. Appellate courts almost never revisit what a jury or trial judge found to be true.
When a District Court Can Hear Your Case
A district court needs jurisdiction before it can decide anything. Jurisdiction comes in two main forms. Federal question jurisdiction covers any civil lawsuit arising under the Constitution, a federal statute, or a treaty.2Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 1331 – Federal Question Diversity jurisdiction applies when the opposing parties are citizens of different states and the amount in dispute exceeds $75,000.3Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 1332 – Diversity of Citizenship; Amount in Controversy; Costs If a dispute fits neither category, it belongs in state court.
Jurisdiction alone isn’t enough. The case also has to be filed in the correct district, which is called venue. Federal law allows a civil suit in a district where any defendant lives (if all defendants live in the same state), or in a district where a substantial part of the events behind the dispute took place. If neither works, the suit can go wherever any defendant is subject to personal jurisdiction.4Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 1391 – Venue Generally Filing in the wrong district doesn’t automatically kill the case, but the defendant can ask the court to dismiss or transfer it.
How a Trial Works
One judge presides over the case. In many civil and criminal trials, a jury decides the factual questions: who did what, whether the plaintiff proved harm, whether the defendant committed the offense. The judge handles the legal questions — what evidence the jury can see, which legal standards apply, what remedies are available.
Criminal cases cover violations of federal law, from fraud and tax evasion to drug trafficking and public corruption. When a defendant is convicted, the judge imposes a sentence using federal sentencing guidelines, which weigh the seriousness of the offense against the defendant’s criminal history to produce a recommended range of months in prison. The judge has discretion to go higher or lower in certain situations.5United States Sentencing Commission. Annotated 2025 Chapter 5
Magistrate Judges and the Day-to-Day Work
Alongside district judges is a corps of magistrate judges who handle much of the court’s routine work. District judges appoint them to renewable eight-year terms, a sharp contrast to the life tenure district judges themselves enjoy.6Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 631 – Appointment and Tenure
In criminal cases, a magistrate judge is often the first judicial officer a defendant sees. They issue search and arrest warrants, preside over initial appearances, set bail, and appoint lawyers for defendants who can’t afford one. They also conduct preliminary hearings to decide whether enough evidence exists to move a case forward.7Legal Information Institute. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure Rule 5.1 – Preliminary Hearing
On the civil side, magistrate judges manage pretrial matters like discovery disputes, scheduling conferences, and settlement negotiations. They can preside over an entire civil trial and enter a final judgment, but only when every party in the case consents in writing.8Legal Information Institute. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Rule 73 Without consent, a magistrate judge can still issue reports and recommendations on key motions, which a district judge then reviews.9Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 636 – Jurisdiction, Powers, and Temporary Assignment
When a Specialized Court Hears the Case Instead
Not every federal dispute flows through the general district courts. Congress has created several specialized courts that also operate at the trial level, finding facts and holding proceedings for the first time, but with much narrower jurisdiction.
Bankruptcy Courts
Each of the 94 federal judicial districts contains a bankruptcy court that operates as a specialized unit of the district court.10Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 151 – Designation of Bankruptcy Courts Any individual or business seeking to discharge debts or reorganize under federal law files here. Bankruptcy judges are appointed by the regional court of appeals for 14-year terms, and they handle everything from consumer Chapter 7 discharges to complex Chapter 11 corporate reorganizations.11Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 152 – Appointment of Bankruptcy Judges
U.S. Tax Court
The U.S. Tax Court is the only federal court where you can challenge an IRS tax bill before paying it. When the IRS sends a notice of deficiency, you have 90 days to file a petition with the Tax Court (150 days if you’re outside the country). Miss the deadline, and your only option is to pay first and then sue for a refund in district court or the Court of Federal Claims.12Internal Revenue Service. Jurisdictional Defects The court has 19 judges, appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate for 15-year terms.13Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 26 USC 7443 – Membership For disputes of $50,000 or less, a simplified “small tax case” procedure is available, though those decisions cannot be appealed.
U.S. Court of International Trade
Businesses that import goods and disagree with customs decisions, tariff classifications, or trade penalties bring their cases here. The court sits in New York City but can hold hearings anywhere in the country. Its nine judges hold life tenure, because it is an Article III court. It has exclusive jurisdiction over civil actions contesting tariff protests, countervailing duty determinations, and other import-related decisions.14Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 251 – Appointment and Number of Judges; Character of Court15Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 1581 – Civil Actions Against the United States and Agencies and Officers Thereof
U.S. Court of Federal Claims
When someone believes the federal government owes them money, whether from a broken contract, an improper tax collection, or a taking of private property, the Court of Federal Claims is usually where the dispute is resolved. The court has 16 judges, appointed by the President for 15-year terms, and it sits in Washington, D.C.16Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 171 – Appointment and Number of Judges; Character of Court Its jurisdiction covers most monetary claims against the United States founded on the Constitution, a federal statute, a regulation, or a contract.17Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 1491 – Claims Against United States Generally It cannot hear tort claims; those go to district court under the Federal Tort Claims Act.
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court
One specialized trial court most people will never encounter is the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, which reviews government applications for surveillance orders targeting foreign intelligence threats inside the United States. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court designates 11 sitting district court judges, drawn from at least seven circuits, to serve on it.18Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 50 USC 1803 – Designation of Judges Proceedings are classified, and the surveillance target is never informed of the hearing or permitted to appear.
What Happens After the Trial Court
A district court decision can be challenged in the circuit courts of appeals. The country is divided into 12 regional circuits, plus the Federal Circuit, which handles patent cases and certain government claims. This appellate layer is where most federal cases receive their final review. The Supreme Court takes only a handful of cases each year.
Timing is strict. In a civil case, you generally have 30 days after the final judgment to file a notice of appeal, or 60 days if the federal government is a party. Criminal defendants get 14 days. Missing that window almost always forfeits the right to appeal, regardless of how strong the argument might be. The appeals court reviews legal errors only. It does not rehear witness testimony or reconsider the facts a jury already decided.
Article III and Article I Courts
The Constitution creates two categories of federal courts, and the difference affects how judges serve. Article III courts (district courts, circuit courts of appeals, the Supreme Court, and the Court of International Trade) are staffed by judges who hold their positions “during good behaviour,” which in practice means for life. Their salaries cannot be reduced while they serve.19Legal Information Institute. Article III, US Constitution Those protections exist to insulate judges from political pressure.
Article I courts (bankruptcy courts, the Tax Court, the Court of Federal Claims, and military courts-martial among them) are created by Congress under its legislative authority. Their judges serve fixed terms: 14 years for bankruptcy judges, 15 years for Tax Court and Court of Federal Claims judges.11Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 28 USC 152 – Appointment of Bankruptcy Judges13Office of the Law Revision Counsel. 26 USC 7443 – Membership Congress can also adjust their salaries. For litigants, the practical effect is subtle but worth knowing: decisions from Article I courts sometimes face additional procedural hurdles on appeal, and the scope of what these courts can decide is more tightly constrained by the statutes that created them.